The English Peasant Uprising Essay -- British History

The English Peasant Uprising was motivated by a growing contempt with the government and clergy following the Black Death which was finally set off by a series of immediate social and economic causes. A shortage of workers followed the Black Death with an estimated forty-five per cent of the population dying in England . As entire towns were either deserted or left devoid of life, rural peasants increased their mobility into major cities. This shortage of rural workers led to famine as fields were left to go fallow, placing further economic pressure on the peasant classes who survived as the price of food increased. Due to the lack of labourers, the labourers who survived demanded greater wages as they now had increased leverage over employers. This ultimately led to economic inflation due to the increased labour cost to the upper classes. This was met with resistance from King Edward III and parliament, who issued the Ordinance of Labourers 1349 and the Statute of Labourers 1351 in an attempt to fix workers’ rates to that of before the Black Death and prohibit an increase in wages beyond pre-established limits . This put great stress on the peasantry as they were forced to work throughout famine for greater hours for limited pay under inflated prices and seeded an antipathy for the government. The general attitude towards the Church as an institution was also responsible for the English Peasant Uprising. At this time, the Church was still a major landowner with almost 60% of English land held by the Church . However, 40% of priests and monks died to the Black Death and the shortage of ecumenical authorities lead to good wages offered for people to step into the clergy . This lead many people unsuited to the roles of religious... ...ts Revolt of 1381. Bath: Pitman. pp. 373. Joint action against `Bad' lordship: The peasants' revolt in Essex and Norfolk. Russell, Josiah Cox (1948). British Medieval Population. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Henderson, Ernest F. (__) Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages The Great Revolt of 1381 Anonimalle Chronicle: The English Peasants' Revolt of 1381 Charles Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 , (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906), pp. 200-203, 205 England in the Aftermath of the Black Death GOOGLE BOOKS The English Rising of 1381 'The Peasants Revolt', in The Medieval Reader, edited by Norman Cantor (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 284-93. E.B. Fryde, The Great Revolt of 1381, London: The Historical Association, 1981, 5-33 Peasant road to capitalism Peasant Politics and Class Consciousness: The Norfolk Rebellions of 1381 The English Peasant Uprising Essay -- British History The English Peasant Uprising was motivated by a growing contempt with the government and clergy following the Black Death which was finally set off by a series of immediate social and economic causes. A shortage of workers followed the Black Death with an estimated forty-five per cent of the population dying in England . As entire towns were either deserted or left devoid of life, rural peasants increased their mobility into major cities. This shortage of rural workers led to famine as fields were left to go fallow, placing further economic pressure on the peasant classes who survived as the price of food increased. Due to the lack of labourers, the labourers who survived demanded greater wages as they now had increased leverage over employers. This ultimately led to economic inflation due to the increased labour cost to the upper classes. This was met with resistance from King Edward III and parliament, who issued the Ordinance of Labourers 1349 and the Statute of Labourers 1351 in an attempt to fix workers’ rates to that of before the Black Death and prohibit an increase in wages beyond pre-established limits . This put great stress on the peasantry as they were forced to work throughout famine for greater hours for limited pay under inflated prices and seeded an antipathy for the government. The general attitude towards the Church as an institution was also responsible for the English Peasant Uprising. At this time, the Church was still a major landowner with almost 60% of English land held by the Church . However, 40% of priests and monks died to the Black Death and the shortage of ecumenical authorities lead to good wages offered for people to step into the clergy . This lead many people unsuited to the roles of religious... ...ts Revolt of 1381. Bath: Pitman. pp. 373. Joint action against `Bad' lordship: The peasants' revolt in Essex and Norfolk. Russell, Josiah Cox (1948). British Medieval Population. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Henderson, Ernest F. (__) Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages The Great Revolt of 1381 Anonimalle Chronicle: The English Peasants' Revolt of 1381 Charles Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 , (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906), pp. 200-203, 205 England in the Aftermath of the Black Death GOOGLE BOOKS The English Rising of 1381 'The Peasants Revolt', in The Medieval Reader, edited by Norman Cantor (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 284-93. E.B. Fryde, The Great Revolt of 1381, London: The Historical Association, 1981, 5-33 Peasant road to capitalism Peasant Politics and Class Consciousness: The Norfolk Rebellions of 1381

Environmental Toxicology

Introduction to Environmental Toxicology A lecture by Dr Rick Leah (Long version of Notes prepared by Dr R T Leah, Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool but including material summarized and adapted from various locations on the www*) Aims The impact of toxic chemicals on wildlife and humans has been of great concern for the last fifty years. Unfortunately this is a very large, complex subject area which can only be covered superficially within the time available.However, this lecture is intended to give an introduction to fundamental aspects of how some pollutants interact with living organisms to cause deleterious effects. The complexity will be explained and simplified where possible. You should understand at least a little about the biology of key organisms and how pollutants cause damage at a physiological level. You should be aware of how pollutants can induce change in organisms which can be used as a ‘biomarker’ of the presence and action of the pollutants (although this will form the subject of a later lecture in this course).Thus as the main outcome of this lecture you should have an appreciation of the wide range of contemporary issues that are caused by toxic chemicals in the environment and what regulatory authorities are doing to monitor and control them. You should understand the main hazards that toxic chemicals pose and how risk to humans and wildlife is controlled. You should be aware of the main groups of pollutants of contemporary concern.The material covered will be useful for the consideration of two case studies on the impact of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes of North America and the Baltic Sea in later lectures. [pic] Environmental Toxicology or Ecotoxicology? [pic] Introduction It was after World War II that increasing concern about the impact of toxic chemicals on the environment led Toxicology to expand from the study of toxic impacts of chemicals on man to that of toxic impacts on the environment. This subject became known as Environmental Toxicology.Ecotoxicology is a relatively new discipline and was first defined by Rene Truhaut in 1969. It attempts to combine two very different subjects: ecology (â€Å"the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms† Krebs 1985) and toxicology (â€Å"the study of injurious effects of substances on living organisms†, usually man). In toxicology the organisms sets the limit of the investigation whereas Ecotoxicology aspires to assess the impact of chemicals not only on individuals but also on populations and whole ecosystems.During the early years, the major tools of Environmental Toxicology were: detection of toxic residues in the environment or in individual organisms and testing for the toxicity of chemicals on animals other than man. It was however, a very big jump in understanding from an experimental animal to a complex, multivariate environment and the subject of ECOTOXICOLOGY develop ed from the need to measure and predict the impact of pollutants on populations, communities and whole ecosystems rather than on individuals.There is an on-going debate as to the exact scope and definition of ecotoxicology. The simplest definition found to date is that ecotoxicology is â€Å"the study of the harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems† (Walker et al, 1996). A more complete definition of Ecotoxicology comes from Forbes & Forbes 1994 â€Å"the field of study which integrates the ecological and toxicological effects of chemical pollutants on populations, communities and ecosystems with the fate (Transport, transformation and breakdown) of such pollutants in the environment†. nd several books have been written recently which discuss this in some depth, these include: Cairns, J Jr & Niederlehner B R (1994) Ecological Toxicity Testing. CRC Press Inc: Boca Raton Forbes, V E & Forbes T L (1994) Ecotoxicology in Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall Ecotoxicolog y Series 2: London. Walker C H, Hopkin S P, Sibly R M & Peakall, D B (1996) Principles of Ecotoxicology. Taylor & Francis: London There are three main objectives in ecotoxicology (Forbes & Forbes 1994): †¢ obtaining data for risk assessment and environmental management. meeting the legal requirements for the development and release of new chemicals into the environment. †¢ developing empirical or theoretical principles to improve knowledge of the behaviour and effects of chemicals in living systems. (More information about the highlighted terms used below can be found in the Definitions section. ) In order to achieve these objectives, the main areas of study are: The distribution of POLLUTANTS in the environment, their entry, movement, storage and transformation within the environment.The effects of pollutants on living organisms. At an individual level, TOXICANTS may disrupt the biochemical, molecular and physiological structure and function which will in turn have conseq uences for the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. At the population level it may be possible to detect changes in the numbers of individuals, in gene frequency (as in resistance of insects to insecticides) or changes in ecosystem function (e. g. soil nitrification) which are attributable to pollution.It may be possible to use BIOMARKERS to establish that a natural population has been exposed to pollution and these can provide a valuable guide to whether or not a natural population is at risk or in need of further investigation. For the purposes of the Regulation and Registration of chemicals the toxicity of individual chemicals is principally investigated via TOXICITY TESTING, the main tool of which is the Standard Toxicity Test (STT) which usually tests the DOSE or CONCENTRATION of a particular chemical that is toxic to under controlled, laboratory conditions.Toxicity tests are mainly carried out using individual animals although there has been a move towards the use of more complex systems known as MESOCOSMS. In some situations, particularly in the case of pesticides, it may be possible to carry out FIELD TRIALS to assess toxicity. Toxicity data are used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. [pic] Significant Issues with Chemicals that have driven the development of Ecotoxicology [pic] 1. DDT – around the world 2. Cadmium in Japan 3. Mercury in Japan 4. PCBs in Japan and Taiwan 5.Dioxins – various 6. The contamination of pristine environments (eg Arctic) by atmospheric transport of organohalogens Most workers in the field of ecotoxicology refer to the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) as a landmark in the public’s awareness of potential damage to human and environmental health from man-made toxic substances. According to Rodricks (1992), Carson’s book â€Å"almost single-handedly created modern society’s fears about synthetic chemicals in the environment and, among other things, fostered renewed interest in the science of toxicology†.Certainly the consolidation of academic and related pursuits into the study of toxic substances in the environment dates from about the same time as the publication of Silent Spring. Prior to the 1960s, there were no coordinated programmes in research, in education or in regulation that systematically addressed toxic substances in the environment. Considerable progress has been made in all these areas during the past four decades. Fate of chemicals in the environment and within organisms As ecotoxicologists we are concerned with the movement and fate of toxic chemicals at both the organism level and that of the whole ecosystem.The relevant issues are: †¢ the source, †¢ transport, †¢ modification and †¢ final fate of the pollutants. At the organism level we need to be concerned with †¢ Uptake †¢ Excretion †¢ Sites of action, metabolism or storage T oxicity testing and the regulation and release of toxic chemicals As ecotoxicology largely arose from toxicology and the need to regulate the introduction of potentially toxic chemicals into the environment, toxicity testing remains central to the subject today. Most toxicity testing for pollutants is still based on tests on individual organisms in artificial test situations (see list of examples in next section).These tests are cheap, reliable and easy to perform but there is much debate about the relevance of many standard toxicity tests to ‘real life'. Initially in the early days of environmental toxicology the concept of the ‘most sensitive species' was used to relate the results of toxicity tests to the ‘real world'. Certain species in a particular community were assessed as being ‘most sensitive' to pollutants. The logic was that if a pollutant was non-toxic to the ‘most sensitive' species then it would be safe for the rest of the community.Essent ially, this logic remains today – the results of tests on single species, in artificial situations are extrapolated to predict the effects of pollutants on whole communities or ecosystems. It is assumed that if you have enough information about the effects of a pollutant on the parts of an ecosystem, then you can assemble the effects on the whole. There is however, some question about the usefulness of extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems.Forbes & Forbes (1994) argue that â€Å"understanding and predicting the consequences of pollutant-induced effects on ecosystems requires that the effects be examined at the level of interest† i. e. the population, community or ecosystem. This debate has been the source of much division in ecotoxicology, between the Applied, often Industrial, Ecotoxicologists concerned with the practicalities of chemical registration and testing and the Pure or Academic Ecotox icologists who regard many toxicity testing regimes as inappropriate or at worst useless.Unfortunately, never the twain shall meet and the level of communication between the two camps has not been great. A fictional exchange makes the point well (from Forbes & Forbes 1994): â€Å"Academic Ecotoxicologist: Single species acute toxicity tests are too simplistic and have no connection with what is really going on out in nature. These standard tests are not only irrelevant and a waste of time, they may in fact do more harm than good if they lead us to believe that we can use them to adequately protect the environment when in fact we cannot.Industrial Ecotoxicologist: These tests may be oversimplified, but they are also cost-efficient, easy to perform, the procedures have been worked out, and the fact is they are required by government. We have absolutely no incentive to do more than is required by law, and, frankly, you have given us little hard evidence that current test procedures do fail to protect the environment adequately. Government Ecotoxicologist: Do you have any idea of the number of new chemicals that we have to assess each year?We can't tell industry to stop producing new chemicals and we can't wait until we understand the whole system before we try to protect it. If you think current procedures fail, then come up with some better tests – which must of course be simple, cheap and fast. Academic Ecotoxicologist: (Pause) †¦ Well, it's very complex, and of course I'll need much more data before I can give you an answer. But those single-species acute tests are oversimplified and have no connection with what is really going on out in the field †¦ Government Ecotoxicologist: We need tests! Give us tests! â€Å"The way forward for Ecotoxicology must be to integrate its two halves much more fully. Toxicity testing, using single species, do provide useful information and will almost certainly remain central to the regulation and registration of toxic chemicals but much can be done to expand the scope of toxicity testing, to add tests that apply to higher levels of organisation and so increase their relevance to the communities and ecosystems that are being protected. Testing methodologies An extensive range of ecotoxicological and biodegradation tests are required for the chemical, agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries.The tests often used include: †¢ Bacterial toxicity tests †¢ Algal Growth tests with a variety of species †¢ Acute toxicity tests with Lemna minor †¢ Acute and Reproduction tests in Daphnia magna †¢ Acute toxicity tests with the marine copepod Acartia tonsa †¢ Oyster embryo larval toxicity test †¢ Acute toxicity test with the marine invertebrate Mysidopsis bahia †¢ Earthworm toxicity tests †¢ Toxicity Tests with sediment dwelling organisms such as Chironomus or Lumbriculus †¢ Acute toxicity tests with freshwater and marine fish †¢ Bioaccumulatio n in fish †¢ Fish growth tests Early Life Cycle tests with fish Algal tests Several freshwater species are routinely tested. The most commonly used are Scenedesmus subspicatus and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Other species used include Navicula Pelliculosa. Skeletonema costatum is the marine species preferred by most regulatory bodies. Electronic particle counters and size distribution analysers are used to monitor the growth of algae in the studies. Lemna is a useful substitute for higher plants. Invertebrate Tests Acute and reproduction studies are routinely conducted with Daphnia magna.Acute tests with other species are also available including the marine copepod Acartia tonsa, the freshwater sediment dwelling species Chironomus riparius or Lumbirculus variegatus and the amphipod Gammarus pulex. Fish Acute tests are conducted under static, semi-static or flow-through conditions. The choice of test regime is dependent upon the chemical properties. Tests using species comm only encountered wild in the UK are rare as most tests are conducted using species adapted for life in the laboratory including: The species used include: †¢ Rainbow trout †¢ Common carp Golden orfe †¢ Bluegill sunfish †¢ Fathead minnow †¢ Japanese killifish †¢ Zebra fish Studies can also be conducted using marine species such as Turbot and Sheepshead minnow. Definitions used in Ecotoxicology Some of the terms used in ecotoxicology, such as LD50, have simple, widely accepted definitions and hence can be defined here with some confidence. Others however vary quite widely in their interpretation from one text to another. I have tried to indicate these below and can only suggest that the reader refer carefully to the introduction of the text they are using.Where there is likely to be some contradiction I have listed the reference for the definitions given. [pic] ECOTOXICOLOGY †¢ is concerned with the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on li ving organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems: it includes the transfer pathways of those agents and their interactions with the environment. Butler, 1978. †¢ investigates the effects of substances on organisms. The hazard to animal and plant populations can be determined by using survey data (retrospective) or by performing specific tests (prospective).Rudolph & Boje, 1986. †¢ the science that seeks to predict the impacts of chemicals on ecosystems. Levin et al 1989. †¢ the study of harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems. Walker et al 1996. [pic] POLLUTANT or CONTAMINANT, XENOBIOTIC or ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL? Variations of use of these terms are commonplace. â€Å"Environmental chemical† may be used to describe simply any chemical that occurs in the environment (Walker et al 1996) or substances which enter the environment as a result of human activity or occur in higher concentrations than they would in nature (Rombk e & Moltmann 1995).The terms contaminant and pollutant can be described separately but are often used as synonyms. Both words are used to describe chemicals that are found at levels judged to be above those that would normally be expected. â€Å"Pollutants† carries the connotation of the potential to cause harm, whereas contaminants are not by definition harmful. This is however, not an easy distinction to make. Whether or not a contaminant is a pollutant may depend on its level in the environment and the organism or system being considered, thus one particular substance may be a contaminant relative to one species but pollutant relative to another.Finally, in practice it is often difficult to demonstrate that harm is not being caused so that in effect pollutant and contaminant become synonymous. (Walker et al 1996). Xenobiotic is used to describe compounds that are ‘foreign' to a particular organism, that is they do not play a part in their normal biochemistry. A chemi cal that is normal to one organism may be foreign to another and so xenobiotics may be naturally occurring as well as man-made compounds (Walker et al 1996). The term Xenobiotic is sometimes also used in a more general sense to describe â€Å"foreign substances† in the environment (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic]HARM or DAMAGE? Biological systems are resilient to harm caused by adverse factors in the environment since they are able to adapt to some insults. There is a fundamental difference in viewpoint between these two words, one defines harm as an effect regardless of any biological compensation that the population might make, the other defines damage as occurring only if there is an effect subsequent to any compensation. harm: biochemical or physical changes which adversely affect individual organisms' birth, growth or mortality rates. Such changes would necessarily produce population declines were it not that other processes may compensate. Walker et al 1996). damage: â⠂¬Å"the interaction between a substance and a biological system. The substance's potential to cause damage is weighed against the protective potential inherent in the biological system (e. g. excretion or metabolic reactions, adaptation or regeneration)† (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic] ENDPOINTS, DOSE and CONCENTRATION There are many different ways in which toxicity can be measured but they are usually assessed relative to a particular outcome or END POINT. Initially, most Toxicity Tests measured the number of organisms killed by a particular DOSE or CONCENTRATION of the chemical being tested.With terrestrial animals the DOSE of chemical (taken orally, applied to the skin or injected) administered is usually recorded. DOSE is usually used where the dietary dose of a test chemical can be accurately determined. For aquatic organisms or where the test chemical is dosed into the surrounding medium, the tests usually measure the CONCENTRATION of chemical in the surrounding water/me dium. The following measures, known as a group as EDs or ECs (Effective Doses or Effective Concentrations) are frequently used to describe data from toxicity tests: LD50Median lethal dose, that is the dose that kills 50% of the population LC50 Median lethal concentration. ED50/EC50 Median effect dose/concentration, that is the dose that produced a defined effect to 50% of the population. NOED/NOEC No Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration) NOEL No Observed Effect Level. Sometimes this more general term is used to describe either of the above. It can be defined as the highest level (that is dose or concentration) of the test chemical that does not cause a statistically significant difference from the control. LOED/LOE Lowest Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration)There has been a move away from the use of lethal end points in toxicity testing towards the measurement of EFFECTS rather than death. Examples of EFFECTS which can be used include changes in: reproduction (eg. number of egg s laid or young hatched); growth (e. g. biomass or body length) and biochemical or physiological effects (e. g. enzyme synthesis or respiration). [pic] HAZARD AND RISK Toxicity data is used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. Where: HAZARD is the potential to cause harm RISK is the probability that harm will be caused.Defining HAZARD involves answering two questions, ‘how much damage are we prepared to tolerate' and ‘how much proof is enough'. The first is a question for society, alleviating/avoiding/repairing damage involves costs, how much are we prepared to pay? The second is largely a scientific problem of providing sufficient evidence that damage is due to pollution. HAZARD is not necessarily directly related to toxicity, it is a product of exposure and toxicity, a compound with moderate toxicity but very high exposure may cause more damage that a very toxic chemical with very low exposure.RISK is usually defined using the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the predicted environmental no effect concentration (PNEC). Information on the movement and behaviour of pollutants in the environment are used to calculate the PEC whereas data from Toxicity Testing must be extrapolated to calculate the PNEC. The making of these calculations is not a precise art, apart from doubts about the extrapolation of Toxicity data from the lab to the field it can be very difficult to estimate the degree of exposure, particularly for mobile taxa such as birds and mammals. [pic]BIOMARKERS A Biomarker can be defined as a â€Å"biological response to a chemical or chemicals that gives a measure of exposure and sometimes, also, of toxic effect† (Walker et al 1996), they can be divided into biomarkers of exposure and of toxic effect. Examples of biomarkers range from the inhibition of AChE (acetylcholinesterase) in the nervous system of animals to the thinning of eggshells in birds. Biomarkers can help to brid ge the gap between the laboratory and the field by giving direct evidence of whether or not a particular animal, plant or ecosystem is being affected by pollution.They will often provide more reliable evidence of exposure than measurements of the pollutants themselves in the environment, the latter are often short-lived and difficult to detect, whereas their effects (detectable via biomarkers) may be much longer-term. [pic] A QUESTION OF SCALE AND ACCURACY The difficulty in extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems has led to attempts to develop more complex systems which can be used in toxicity tests.Such systems are usually termed microcosms, mesocosms or macrocosms, that is small, medium or large multispecies systems. It must be possible to control conditions in these systems to such an extent that they can provide meaningful, reproducible (that is, the system could be accurately copied elsewhere), replicable (that is, two replicates of the same experiment would produce the same results) data in toxicity tests. Simply because they are more complex systems it is seldom possible to produce tests that are as precise and controlled as those carried out in single species STTs.However, despite their limitations these larger-scale tests can provide important insights into the effect of pollutants on whole systems rather than on single species. [pic] MIXTURES OF CHEMICALS, ADDITION OR MULTIPLICATION? In natural systems, organisms are often (usually) exposed to more than one pollutant at the same time. However, regulatory authorities usually assume – unless there is evidence to the contrary – that the toxicity of combinations of chemicals is roughly additive.Fortunately in many cases this is quite correct but in some cases, toxicity is more than additive in that is there is POTENTIATION of toxicity. One particular type of potentiation called SYNERGISM occurs where the effect of two or more chemicals combine to have greater impact than expected from their individual concentrations. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Definitions [pic] What is a pesticide? A literal definition of a pesticide would be â€Å"a killer of pests†. In practice pesticides are no longer aimed exclusively at killing the pests they are used to control and the term has acquired a rather wider meaning uch as â€Å"the chemical tools used to manage all kinds of pests† or in the US it's more official definition is â€Å"any substance used for controlling, preventing destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest† (all definitions from Ware 1991). Hence pesticides include not only those chemicals which kill the pest they are used against but also those such as insect chemosterilants or plant and insect growth regulators which control pest populations without necessarily, physically, killing the pests they come into contact with.Pesticides have been divided into many diffe rent classes. Firstly, according to the target organism that they control, so insect-icides kill (or control) insects, rodent-icides control rodents etc. The -icide suffix has been widely used in the past, as shown in Table 1, but relatively few of these terms are in common use today. Secondly, pesticides can be classified according to their mode of action, that is the way in which they act on the pest population, e. g. attractants, repellents, chemosterilants etc.Finally, the definition of a pesticide has been widened once again to: â€Å"pesticides are used by man as intentional additions to his environment in order to improve environmental quality for himself, his animals or his plants† (Ware 1991). This definition allows the inclusion of 2 new classes of treatment. Firstly those such as plant growth regulators, which are not only used as herbicides to control weeds, but also to control directly the growth of the crop and hence improve its success.For instance, they are us ed to reduce the growth of cereals so that they do not become too tall and prone to ‘lodging' before harvest. Secondly, microbial pesticides which are not based on a chemical but on bacteria, fungi, nematodes and viruses which attack the pest. [pic] Table 1 Classes of pesticide according to : A. the target organism and B. pesticide mode of action. After Ware (1991). |CLASS |FUNCTION | |A.By Target Organism   | |acaricide |kills/controls mites | |algicide |kills/controls algae | |avicide |kills/controls or repels birds | |bactericide |kills/controls bacteria | |fungicide |kills/controls fungi | |herbicide |kills/controls plants | |insecticide |kills/controls insects | |larvicide |kills/controls larvae (usually mosquitoes) | |miticide |kills/controls mites | |molluscicide |kills/controls snails & slugs.May include oysters, clams, & mussels | |nematicide |kills/controls nematodes | |ovicide |kills/controls eggs | |pediculicide |kills/controls lice | |piscicide |kills/c ontrols fish | |predicide |kills/controls predators (usually such as coyotes) | |rodenticide |kills/controls rodents | |silvicide |kills/controls trees & brush | |slimicide |kills/controls slime | termiticide |kills/controls termites | |B. By Mode of Action – by affect on pest   | |attractants/pheromones |Attract animals, especially insects usually into traps. Often sexual pheromones. | |chemosterilants |Sterilise insects or vertebrates (birds, rodents). Usually sterilise males. | |defoliants |Remove leaves. | |desiccants |Speed drying of plants. Used not only to kill weeds but also as pre-harvest desiccants to make harvesting | | |easier. |disinfectants |Kill or inactivate harmful micro-organisms | |feeding stimulants |Cause insects to feed more vigorously | |growth regulators |Stimulate or retard plant or insect growth. Natural or artificial hormones used not only to kill weed species | | |but also to protect crops such as cereals from lodging. | |repellents |Repel insects, mites, ticks or pest vertebrates (dogs, rabbits, deer, birds). | |B. By Mode of Action – by timing of application | |curative (fungicides) |applied to the plant after initial infection. |eradicant (fungicides) |applied when disease symptoms have already become visible, often to prevent the spread of disease. | |protectant (fungicides) |applied to the plant surface before infection. | |pre-plant or pre-sowing |applied before crop is sown or planted | |(herbicides) | | |pre-emergence (herbicides) |applied before the crop has germinated | |post-emergence(herbicides) |applied after the crop has germinated | |B.By Mode of Action – by selectivity | |the degree to which a pesticide discriminates between target and non-target organisms. | |selective |A selective pesticide effects a very narrow range of species other than the target pest or may be. The chemical | | |itself may be selective in that it does not affect non-target species or it may be used selectively in such a | | |way that non-target species do not come into contact with it. | |non-selective |a non-selective pesticide kills a very wide range of plants, insects, fungi etc. | |B.By Mode of Action – by site of interaction with pest | |systemic |the pesticide is absorbed by the pest and moves around within the pest system to reach parts of the pest remote | | |from the point of application | |contact |contact pesticides directly affect the parts of the plant, insect, fungus etc to which they are applied. They | | |cause localised damage to the plant or animal tissue on contact. | References Barlow, F (1985) Chemistry and formulation. In: Pesticide Application: Principles and Practice. Ed: P T Haskell. Oxford Science Publications: Oxford. pp 1-34. Dent, D R (1995) Integrated Pest Management.Chapman & Hall: London, Glasgow, Weinheim, New York, Todyo, Melbourne, Madras. Rombke, J & J M Moltmann (1995) Applied Ecotoxicology. Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo. Wa re, G W (1991) Fundamentals of Pesticides. A self-instruction guide. Thomson Publications: Fresno USA. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Insecticides [pic] While pesticides can be divided into many classes by target organism, mode of action etc for most purposes chemical pesticides are divided into three major groups according to their target organism, that is: insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. These groups are then subdivided into chemical groups such as organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates etc.This simplified classification effectively groups acaricides, nematicides and molluscicides in with insecticides as many chemicals that have acaricidal, nematocidal or molluscicidal properties are also insecticidal. The current proliferation of chemical insecticides dates from World War II, until this time the insecticides available were based on: arsenicals, petroleum oils, sulphur, hydrogen cyanide gas, cryolite and on extracts from plants such as pyrethrum, nicotine and rotenone. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides gives a summary of the main chemical classes of insecticide and the main chemicals in each class. The characteristics of the main classes of insecticide: the organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids are summarised below. Organochlorines Also called: chlorinated hydrocarbonsA large and varied group that has a particularly high public profile because of the environmental problems they have caused. They were mostly discovered in 1942-56 and were very important in the early success of synthetic insecticides. They are mostly Insecticides with a very wide range of actions, they can be divided into three main groups: DDT and related compounds including rhothane (DDD) and methoxychlor. Widely used during World War II for control of disease vectors (such as mosquitoes) and subsequently much used on agricultural pests such as ectoparasites of farm animals and insect disease vectors and also widel y used against insects in domestic and industrial premises. chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor. ost widely used as seed dressings and soil insecticides. hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), such as lindane used against pests and parasites of farm animals, also in insecticidal seed dressings. Organochlorine insecticides are very stable solids with: limited vapour pressure, very low water solubility and high lipophilicity. They may be very persistent in their original form or as stable metabolites. They tend to be stored in body fats and are particularly hazardous because they are so stable and tend to accumulate in successive organisms in the food chain. DDT and the HCHs a regarded as only moderately toxic to mammals while the chlorinated cyclodienes are highly toxic.Action: all organochlorine insecticides are nerve poisons but DDT has a different action to the chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs. DDT acts on the sodium channels in the nervous system s o that the passage of an ‘action potential' along the nerve is disrupted. It causes uncontrolled repetitive spontaneous discharges along the nerve. Uncoordinated muscle tremors and twitches are characteristic symptoms. The chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs act on the GABA receptors which function as a channel for Cl – ions through the nerve membranes. They bind to the GABA receptors and reduce the flow of Cl – ions. Typical symptoms include convulsions. Organophosphates Also called: organic esters of phosphorus acid.Such as bromophos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, fenitrothion, malathion, parathion and phorate. The same basic constituents are combined with many additional chemicals to give a wide range of products with very different properties. Organophosphates were developed during the second world war and have two main uses: as insecticides and as nerve gases (chemical warfare agents). They are mostly liquids, liphophilic, with some volatility and a few a re solids. Generally, they are less stable and more readily broken down than organochlorines and are relatively short-lived in the environment, hence most of their hazard is associated with short-term (acute) toxicity.The water solubility of the various organophosphate compounds is very variable and they are prepared in numerous formulations: as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying and to control ectoparasites of farm animals (particularly sheep dips) and sometimes internal parasites (such as ox warble fly); as seed dressings and as granular formulations particularly used for the most toxic organophosphates (e. g. disyston and phorate) as the active ingredient is effectively ‘locked up' in the granule and is safer to handle and only slowly released into the environment. Organophosphates are also used to control vertebrate pests such as Quelea in Africa. Action: like organochlorines, organophosphates also act as a neurotoxin. They combine with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and prevent conduction of nerve impulses at junctions in the nervous system where acetylcholine is the natural transmitter.As a result, acetylcholine builds up in the nerve synapse and eventually leads to synaptic block when the acetylcholine can no longer relay signals across the synapse. In neuro-muscle junctions this leads to tetanus, the muscle is in a fixed state, unable to contract or relax in response to nerve stimulation. Carbamates e. g. aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methiocarb, methomyl, pirimicarb and propoxur Carbamates are a more recent development than organochlorines or organophosphates, they are all derivatives of carbamic acid. The basic carbamate group is combined with different chemicals to produce insecticides with a wide range of properties (in particular they vary greatly in their water solubility) and actions.Carbamates are not only used as insecticides but also molluscicides and nematicides. Carbamates are also used as herbicides and fungicides but these ha ve a different mode of action and are described elsewhere. Carbamates are mainly used to control insect pests in agriculture and horticulture, they have abroad spectrum of activity and usually act by contact or stomach action although a few possess systemic activity (aldicarb, carbofuran). Action: basically the same as organophosphates, inhibiting the action of acetylcholine at the nerve synapses. Doses of carbamates are not accumulative and carbamate poisoning is more easy to reverse than that caused by organophosphates.They are generally regarded as representing a short-term hazard. Pyrethroids Such as cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin. Pyrethrin insecticides were developed from naturally occurring chemicals found in the flower heads of Chrysanthenum sp. and these provided the model for the production of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Pyrethroids are generally more stables than natural pyrethrins. The development of pyrethroids can be traced over 4 main phases (Ware 1991). The first generation allethrin was a synthetic duplicate of a natural pyrethrum, cinerin I. The second generation included bioallethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin and bioresmethrin.These were marginally more effective than natural pyrethrums but were neither effective enough nor photostable enough to be used extensively in agriculture. However, they are still used in pest control formulations for the home. The third generation of pyrethroids included fenvalerate and permethrin which were stable in sunlight and only slightly volatile and could be used successfully in agriculture. Finally, the fourth and current generation of pyrethroids can be used at much lower concentrations (one-fifth to one-tenth) that those in generation 3 and are all photostable. Overall, most pyrethroids are not sufficiently soluble in water to be used a systemic insecticides. They are mainly formulated as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying.They control a wide range of agricultural a nd horticultural insect pests and are used extensively to control insect vectors of disease (e. g. tsetse fly in Africa) Action: pyrethroids are generally solids with very low water solubility and they act as neruotoxins in a very similar way to DDT. They are readily biodegradable but can bind to particles in soils and sediments and can be persistent in these locations. They are particularly toxic to insects as opposed to mammals and birds and the main environmental concerns are over their effects on fish and non-target invertebrates. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Action |Notes | |AMIDINES | | | | |   |amitraz |   |also ACARICIDE | |BOTANICAL | | | | |   |azadirachtin |insect growth regulator |extracted from Neem | |   |nicotine |contact, non-persistent general |extracted from tobacco | | | |purpose, | | |   |pyrethrin |contact, non-persistent |extracted from Pyrethrum | |   |rotenone |contact |extracted from Derris and Lonchocarpus | |CARBAMATES | | | |   |aldicarb |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |bendiocarb |contact & ingested |   | |   |carbaryl |contact |also WORM KILLER, FRUIT THINNER | |   |carbofuran |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |methiocarb |stomach acting |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |   |methomyl |fly bait |   | |   |pirimicarb |contact & fumigant aphids only |   | |   |propoxur |fumigant, maimainly in |   | | | |glasshouses | | |   |thiocarb |pelleted bait |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |ORGANOCHLORINES | | | | |diphenyl aliphatic derivatives |DDT |   |   | |   |rhothane (DDD) |   |   | |benzene derivatives |lindane ? amma HCH |contact, ingested & fumigant |   | |cyclodiene derivatives |aldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |dieldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |endosulfan |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |ORGANOPHOSPHATES | | | | |aliphatic derivatives |dichlorvos |contact , fumigant    | |   |dimethoate |contact, systemic |also ACARICIDE | |   |disulfoton |systemic, granules |   | |   |malathion |contact |also ACARICIDE | |   |phorate |systemic |   | |phenyl derivatives |fenitrothion |contact, broad spectrum |   | |   |parathion |   |   | |heterocyclic derivatives |chlorpyrifos |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |   |diazinon |contact |   | |ORGANOTINS | | | | |   |fenbutatin-oxide |   |ONLY ACARICIDE | |PYRETHROIDS | | | | |generation 1 |allethrin |   |   | |generation 2 |bioresmethrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |phenothrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |resmethrin |contact |   | |   |tetramethrin |contact |   | |generation 3 |fenvalerate |contact |   | |   |permethrin |contact & ingested, broad |   | | | spectrum | | |generation 4 |bifenthrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |cypermethrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |cyfluthrin |   |   | |   |fenpropathrin |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Herbicides [pic] It is really only in the last 50 years that use of chemical weedkillers or herbicides has become widespread. Prior to this, the control of weeds in crops was carried out largely by manual weeding, crop rotation, ploughing and various ways of stopping weed seeds being dispersed in crop seed. Today, the heavy use of herbicides is confined to those countries that practice highly intensive, mechanised farming.In 1971 it was estimated that more energy was expended on weeding crops than on any other single human task (Brain 1971 ). Herbicides are also used extensively in non-crop and amenity situations such as industrial sites, roadsides, ditch banks, recreational areas etc. Herbicides can be classified in a number of different ways. The main classification used is often according to chemical class but they can also be classified according to their selectivity, the way th at they affect the plant, the timing of application and the area covered by an application. Herbicides are classed as selective if they kill some plant species but not others, for instance they may kill the weeds but not the crop and as non-selective if they kill all vegetation.Herbicides may be intrinsically selective in that they are active against some species of weed but not others but they may also be used selectively, that is in such a way that they only come into contact with the weeds and not the crop. There are two main ways in which herbicides affect the plants they are applied to: contact herbicides kill parts of the plant that they come into contact with. These are generally used against annual weeds and if they are to be effective need complete coverage of the target weed with the chemical. Systemic or translocated herbicides are absorbed either by the roots or foliage of the plant and then move within the plants system to areas remote from the site of application.Trans located herbicides tend to be slower acting than contact ones and while they can be used against annual weeds they are more commonly aimed at perennial weeds. With translocated herbicides a uniform, although not necessarily complete, coverage of the target weeds is necessary. Finally, herbicides can be classified according to the timing of application in relation to the crop they are being used in. Pre-plant, or pre-sowing herbicides must be applied to an area before the crop is planted. Pre-emergence herbicides are applied before the crop has emerged, this may allow an added level of selectivity as a herbicide can be applied to growing weeds while the crop itself is still protected by the oil. Finally, post-emergence herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged from the soil.Again, a level of selectivity may be introduced by applying a germination inhibitor to prevent further germination of weed seeds – after the crop itself has germinated. Phenoxy Herbicides e. g. 2,4- D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T All derivatives of phenoxyalkane carboxylic acids that act as plant growth regulator herbicides. Phenoxy herbicides were the first safe, selective herbicides discovered and they are still used in huge quantities. They act by simulating the action of natural hormones and produce uncoordinated plant growth. Their action is selective as they are toxic to dicotyledonous but not monocotyledonous plants. Hence they can be used to control ‘dicot' weeds (broad leaved weeds) in ‘monocot' crops (e. g. cereals, grass). Their physical properties vary greatly according to formulation.For instance, as alkali salts they are highly water soluble (can be formulated as aqueous solutions) whereas when as simple esters they have low water solubility and are lipophilic (generally formulated as emulsifiable concentrates). The main hazard they present is mainly posed by unwanted spray drift but they have also sometimes been contaminated with the highly toxic compound TCDD (or dioxin). Other related compounds, also with plant growth regulating properties include phenoxypropionic acids (e. g. CMPP) and phenoxybutyric acids (e. g. 2,4DB). Table 3: Classification of Herbicides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Uptake/action |Persistence |Timing/site of |Other uses | | | | | |application | | |ACETANILIDES | | | | | | |   |alachlor |via roots, |residual |pre/post-emergence |   | | | |translocated | | | | |AMIDES or substituted amides | | | | | | |   |napropamide |   |   |pre-emergence |   | |   |propachlor |   |   |pre-emergence | |BENZOICS or arylaliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dicamba |translocated |   |soil/foliar |   | |BENZONITRILES or substituted nitriles| | | | | | |   |dichlobenil |   |residual |soil |   | |DIAZINONES | | | | | | |   |bentazone |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |BIPYRIDYLIUMS | | | | | | |   |diquat |contact |non-residual |f oliar |pre-harvest, CROP | | | | | | |DESICCANT | |   |paraquat |contact |non-residual |   |   | |CARBAMATES or carbanilates | | | | | | |   |asulam |translocated |   |foliar |   | |   |chlorpropham |   |residual |soiltubers |POTATO SPROUT SUPPRESSANT| |   |phenmedipham |contact |   |foliar |   | |CHLOROALKANOIC ACIDS or chlorinated | | | | | | |aliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dalapon |   |persistent |soil? | |DINITROANILINES or nitroanilines | | | | | | |   |pendimethalin |   |residual |pre-emergence, soil|   | |   |trifluralin |   |   |soil-incorporated |   | |HBNs | | | | | | |   |bromoxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |   |ioxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |IMIDAZOLINONES or imidazoles | | | | | | |   |imazapyr |translocated |residual |foliar, soil |   | |   |imazaquin |   |   |   |   | |OXIMES or cyclohexenones | | | | | | |   |cycloxydim |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |setho xydim |   |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYACETIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPA |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYBUTYRIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPB |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYPROPRIONIC ACIDS | | | | | |   |diclofop-methyl |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fenoxaprop-P-ethyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fluazifop-P-butyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |mecoprop |translocated |   |   |   | |   |mecoprop-P |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHOSPONIC ACIDS or phosphona amino | | | | | | |acids or phosphates | | | | | | |   |glufosinate-ammonium |contact |non-residual |foliar |   | |   |glyphosate |translocated |non-residual |foliar |   | |PICOLINIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |picloram |translocated |persistent |foliar, soil |   | |PYRIDINOXY ACIDS | | | | | | |   |fluroxypur |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |triclopyr |   |   |foliar |   | |QUATER NARY AMMONIUM | | | | | | |   |difenzoquat |   |   |post-emergence |   | |SULFONYLUREAS | | | | | |   |metsulfuron-methyl |contact |residual |post-emergence |   | |   |triasulfuron |   |   |post-emergence |   | |THIOCARBAMATES | | | | | | |   |tri-allate |   |   |soil-acting, |   | | | | | |pre-emergence | | |TRIAZINES | | | | | | |   |atrazine |   |residual |pre/post emergence |   | |   |cyanazine |contact |residual |pre-emergence |   | |   |metribuzin |contact |residual |pre-/post-emergence|   | |   |simazine |root uptake |   |soil

William Shakespeare s Macbeth - 1318 Words

Shakespeare s tragedy, Macbeth, follows a man’s bloody rise to power, which hinges on murder of the Scottish king named Duncan. In my opinion, the play s most memorable character is the wife of this man, Lady Macbeth. Similar to her spouse, Lady Macbeth s lust for power plunges her into madness. So much so that Lady Macbeth turns to witchcraft transforms herself into an desexualized evil spirit to quench her thirst to become a man. The play is filled with moments when characters reveal vital information to the development of the story, that is unspoken to other members but is conveyed to the audience via monologue,. This is what is known as a soliloquy, The oxford English dictionary defines soliloquy as â€Å"An instance of talking to or†¦show more content†¦Macbeth has chosen to ignore the advice of Banquo, who stresses that the witches are not to be trusted. Despite this Macbeth trusts the witches with absolute certainty. Macbeth goes on to say, dearest partner of greatness, mightst not lose the dues of rejoicing. He tells his wife to celebrate because will become the new queen. Unfortunately, Lady Macbeth does not rejoice, this is because Lady Macbeth does not think Macbeth is limited in his abilities. Lady Macbeth begins to speak to him even though Macbeth is not really there, Yet do I fear thy nature; / It is too full o the milk of human kindness / To catch the nearest way. This proves that Lady Macbeth knows her husband extremely well, perhaps this is because she shares some of Macbeths instincts. They both agree that, murdering Duncan is the nearest way. In an earlier scene, Macbeth is quoted saying, If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me, / Without my stir, but later he understands that he must become an killer in order to be king of Scotland. This is also Lady Macbeth’s assumption. Lady Macbeth also shares the witches views on good and bad. She says to her absent husband, Thou wouldst be great; / Art not withou t ambition, but without / The illness should attend it. Like the witches,

Essay on UK described in 6 Hofstede dimensions - 1027 Words

1. Today I would like to present you the United Kingdom described in six Geert Hofstedes dimensions. 2. Separated from the European continent by the North Sea and English Channel, the United Kingdom includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. England and Wales were united in 1536. The United Kingdom is the 22nd-most populous country, with an estimated 64.1 million inhabitants. It is a constitutional monarchy and has a parliamentary system of governance. Its capital city is London, an important global city and financial centre with the second-largest urban area in the European Union 3. The culture of the United Kingdom is the pattern of human activity and symbolism associated with the United Kingdom and its people. The UK†¦show more content†¦The route to happiness is through personal fulfillment. 6. Masculinity At 66, Britain is a masculine society – highly success oriented and driven. A key point of confusion for the foreigner lies in the apparent contradiction between the British culture of modesty and understatement which is at odds with the underlying success driven value system in the culture. Critical to understanding the British is being able to ‘’read between the lines’’ What is said is not always what is meant. In comparison to feminine cultures such as the Scandinavian countries, people in the UK live in order to work and have a clear performance ambition. 7. Uncertainty avoidance At 35 the UK has a low score on uncertainty avoidance which means that as a nation they are quite happy to wake up not knowing what the day brings and they are happy to ‘make it up as they go along’ changing plans as new information comes to light. As a low UAI country the British are comfortable in ambiguous situations - the term ‘muddling through’ is a very British way of expressing this. In work terms this results in planning that is not detail oriented – the end goal will be clear but the detail of how we get there will be light and the actual process fluid and flexible to emerging and changing environment. Planning horizons will also be shorter. Most importantly the combination of a highly individualistic and curious nation is aShow MoreRelatedCross Cultural Management4004 Words   |  17 PagesExecutive Summary The aim of this report is to provide a framework for understanding the differences in the cultures of India and China and to highlight the adjustments that will need to be made by ABC Ltd. which is based in Northampton, UK to succeed in the innovation co-operation of solar technology solutions in these two countries (Bhasin, 2007). In this paper we have used the historical background of cultures in India and China to define value, traditions, and attitudes. 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The Glass Menagerie Existentialist Responsibilities...

The story of a young Tennessee Williams is poetically portrayed through a 1945 Broadway Play, The Glass Menagerie. The main character, Tom Wingfield, lives in his family’s apartment with his mother, Amanda Wingfield, and sister, Laura Wingfield. Their father left the family, and he remains a silent character appearing as a portrait on the apartment wall. Throughout the seven scenes, the immaturity of each family member is revealed. In search of adventure, Tom has dreams of being a writer and wishes to leave his family and factory job, like his father, to join the Merchant Marines. Laura lets her disability, a braced leg, hinder her finding a job or a husband, while Amanda stays in denial of her children’s failure by living in the past†¦show more content†¦There are evident parallels made when comparing Williams’ life to his masterpiece. John Lahr describes Edwina, Williams mother, as, [...] a frigid hysteric, given to manipulative bouts of fainting , and a non-stop talker, whose barrage of chatter oppressed her mute and hapless children. Edwina was the head of her household yet she denied reality as she ignored the severity of things. She also kicked her husband out of her home, and took half of the finances. Rose, Tennessees sister, had one of the first lobotomies performed on her (Lahr). Although some aspects of Williams’ life were altered for the play, Amanda’s perturbing personality, Laura’s health problems-or disabilities, and the father’s absence all relate to his family’s characteristics. Existentialism, originally from the 1900s, is focused on the existence of humans and their pursuit of meaning (â€Å"Existentialism-A Philosophy†). Catharine Savage Brosman studied Jean Paul Sartre’s lecture L’Existentialisme est un humanisme and concluded: Existentialists believe a human nature does not exist and neither does God. There is no set meaning to life, and the only purpose is for Man to find his own meaning. She then explains the ethics behind this, â€Å"Sartre gives an example [†¦]: a young man during the Occupation trying to decide whether to stay home and take care of his unhappy mother or leave to fight with the Free French based in England.†

Dividend and Share Price Relation-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Share price Movement and dividend Payments are independent of each other - Critically analyse the above statement with reference to the literature on Dividend Policy and Empirical Evidences, giving your Final View on the Issue. Answer: Introduction: Dividend payment strategy and share price of a company is directly related to each other. If the company would offer high dividend payout or low dividend payout than it directly affects the share price of a company. Mainly, both the policies which are high dividend policies and low dividend policies make the different impact over the performance and the stock price of a company. Companies take the help of various dividend policies to make a better decision about how much dividend must be paid to the investors to keep them satisfied and attract other investors to invest into the operations of the company (Zhang, 2012). Various dividend policies such as relevant theory, residual relevant theory, expectation theory etc have been analyzed. Usually making a decision about the high or low dividend is important for an organization. An organization is required to look over various factors and then make a better decision about the dividends. In this report, various dividend policies of the co mpany have been analyzed and than a better decision have been made (FIRRER 2012). Analyze the dividend polices and analytical view: Dividend policies are mainly of two types which are relevant dividend polices and irrelevant dividend policies. Relevant dividend policies depict that mainly investors look over the market and dividend offered by the company to make a decision about the investment into the company. Relevant dividend theories are bird in hand theory, expectation theory and residual dividend theory whereas irrelevant theories are MM theory. Dividend relevant theories brief that the tax and the transaction cost of the company are also applied and considered while making the decision of the investment. Inflation rate do not exist in this theory (Tucker, 2011). Bird in hand theory mainly considers that high dividend payout ratio must be adopted by the company as it attracts the investors more due to the thought process of the investors that they would be able to earn the more return from the stock of the company. Further, the residual dividend theory depict that the company must manage all the expenditure, capital expenditure before distributing the divided amount to its shareholders. This depict that the total amount of profit must be distributed to the shareholder but after paying all the capital expenditure (DEEPTEE and ROSHAN, 2009). Expectation theory states that long term interest rate depict about the short term performance of the company. Further, it has been found that all of these theories depict the company to take the use of all the net profit to attract the investors (Davies and Crawford, 2011). Further, irrelevant dividend policies have been analyzed. It depict that mainly investors do not look over the market and dividend offered by the company to make a decision about the investment into the company whereas they analyze the financial performance and stability of the company (Breuer, Rieger and Soypak, 2014). Miller and Modigliani have invested this approach. They have analyzed through this research that it is not necessary for the investors of a market to consider the dividend payout of the company (Masum, 2014). They have also approached that the dividend payout of a company could never be enough to analyze about the stability and performance of the company. This theory also briefs that the tax and the transaction cost of the company are also not applied and do not considered while making the decision about the investment (CORRERIA, 2013). This theory mainly considers that it is not required for an organization to deliver high dividend to the investor because this could not depict about the performance of the company (Travlos, Trigeorgis and Vafeas, 2015). The hypothesis of dividend theory depict that various factors are there which makes an impact over the management and organization choice about the dividends. Leverages, debt constraints, capital rules impairment, cash availability and investment opportunities in front of the company (Barman, 2008). For instance, if the company has a great investment opportunity and for that company wants to raise the fund than company could retain some amount of dividend for further use and it would impact over the dividend policies of the companies. Further, according to the study of Brealey, Myers and Marcus, (2007), it has been found that the factors are quite important for an investors as well as organization to understand. Many times, the dividend is lowered by the company to raise the profits of the company through some other ways. Investors must look over these points and make a decision accordingly (Bradford, Chen and Zhu, 2013). It would also help the company to maintain the stock price. Though, from various studies and the reports of the analyst, it has been analyzed that the investors are not well informed and do not have enough knowledge to analyze and evaluate the performance of the company (Bodie, 2013). They only analyze the current performance and the position of the company which could only be analyzed through the current market share price of the company (STEEN et al, 2012). Thus through this analysis, it has been analyzed that the companys are required to announce the dividend to set the performance and position into the current market so that the investors could get attract towards the company and make high investment into the company. Cash dividends are bit essential for the company to become more competitive and enhance the market price of the stock of the company (CORRERIA et al, 2013). Factors for low dividend payout or high dividend payout: Dividend payout is the value which evaluates the total dividend paid out by the company to its investors on the basis of the net profit of the company. Dividend payout of a company mainly depends over the policies of the company (Breuer, Rieger and Soypak, 2014). If the company follows the policy of the relevant policies than the dividend payout of the company would be higher whereas if the company would follow the policies of the irrelevant policies than the dividend payout of the company would be lower or nil. The formulas of dividend payout are as follows: =Total annual dividend of the company / diluted earnings per share (Davies and Crawford, 2011). There are various factors which affect the lower dividend payout as well as higher dividend payout of a company such as the industry norms, investment opportunity, cash position in the company, competitors position, profit position of the company, economical position etc. A company is required to make the decision about dividend payout after considering all the above given factors. Such as if the economical position is not good than must company must retain the profit and use it for further operations of the company rather than dividing it into the shareholders of the company. Low dividend payout ratio depict that the comapny would offer a lower % of the total net profit to the investors and will retain the extra amount for the further investment in the company so that the company do not require to raise the funds from the external sources. Low dividend payout ratio is not in the favour of the company according to the various analyst of the company (Barman, 2008). At the same time, high dividend payout ratio depict that the comapny would offer a higher % of the total net profit to the investors so that the company. This % would be higher than the affordability of the company. High dividend payout ratio is not in the favour of the company according to the various analyst of the company as this assist the company to face various risks in the market (Brealey, Myers and Marcus, 2007). A company must consider the high dividend payout ratio only if the market position of the company is well and good and company could enhance the profit at any time and the funds could also be raised by the company from market easily (Shao, Kwo and Guedhami, 2013). So, the management accountant must make the decision of lower dividend policies and higher dividend policies accordingly. Mainly, it is considered that higher dividend profit is the best option as investor got some money periodically in terms of dividend which makes them attract. Analysis over dividend and share price relation: Dividend payment and share price of the company is direct related to each other. Mainly, the share price of a company is affected due to the dividend price although the dividend history and other related factors also make an affect over these values. If the dividend offered by the company gets reduced than it directly affect the share price of the company. Companies take the help of various dividend policies to make a better decision about how much dividend must be paid to the investors to keep them satisfy and attract other investors to invest into the operations of the company. Basically, it becomes bit tough for the company to make these decisions. Market psychology is an outcome of various analysts report collectively that depict that basically the share price of a company depends over the total stock of the company which has been issues and fluctuations which could take place into the security market or the economical condition of the company. Naser, Nuseibeh and Rashed, (2013) have expressed that an investor always wants to earn more profits from the market and enhance the worth of the invested amount. So he or she tries to invest into that security from where they could earn more profits. Bodie, (2013) has expressed in their study that dividend psychology has also been studied and it has been analyzed that it depicts that the many companies always offer the same dividend with a good dividend payout ratio so that the expectation of the investors enhances from the market and they expect that each company would offer them that much of dividend. Thanatawee (2013) says that this creates a positive relationship among the dividend and share price of the company. As due to the dividend, the investors would be attracted more towards the company and then the demand and supply of the stock in the market would enhance and through it the share price of the company would also increase. Through it and through the market analysis, it has been found that dividend declaration affects the stock price of a company at huge level (Bradford et al, 2013). At the time of delivering the dividend, the share price of the company get fluctuate rapidly and the main reason behind enhancing and decreasing the stock price of the company is its dividend payout value. Baker and Weigand, (2015) have expressed that through the dividend and stock price of the company have positive relations with each other so the company is required to offer a good dividend to the investors to make a good position in the market and enhance the market price of the security. Analytical evidences: For analyzing the relationship of dividend and the stock price of a company. 10 companies of the market have been taken and their share price has been compared before declaring the share price and after the declaration of share price. Through this, it has been analyzed that after the declaration of the dividend, the share price of almost all the stock has been enhanced this depict that the study of the analyst is realistic in the security market. Comapny Date Share price Share price After Effect Before 30 days 30 days Anwar Ceramic tiles 13th April 0.143 0.146 Share price has been enhanced. AHLI Bank 27th March 0.105 0.11 Share price has been enhanced. Madina Investment 28th June 0.38 0.39 Share price has been enhanced. ACWA Power Barka 18th June 0.78 0.752 Share price has been reduced. Bank Dhofar 27th March 0.198 0.202 Share price has been enhanced. Majan college 29th Nov 0.42 0.46 Share price has been enhanced. Batinah power 11th June 1.125 1.125 Share price is similar. Madina Takaful 27th March 0.105 0.109 Share price has been enhanced. Buriami Hotel 18th June 0.93 0.98 Share price has been enhanced. Omannia financial securities 21st March 0.253 0.276 Share price has been enhanced. The above calculation and analysis over the above companies express that the Anwar ceramic tiles, AHLI bank, Medina Investment, Bank Dhofar, Majan college, Madina Takaful, Buriami Hotel and Omannia financial securities depict that the stock price of these securities has been enhanced after announcing the dividend. This has taken place due to the high dividend payout ratio. The dividend announcement has attracted the investors to invest into the company. Further, the stock price of the ACWA power Barka has been reduced due to lower dividend payout ratio. And the share price of Batinah Power has become same even after announcing the dividend due to the fact that the dividend offered by the company was average. Through this study, it has been found that if the normal or good dividend is offered by the company to its investors then the demand of the stock enhances into the market and it directly make an impact over the share price of the company (Hillier, Grinblatt and Titman, 2011). Conclusion: To conclude, organizations must look over the analysis and market situation as well as the nature of the investors before announcing the dividend so that the investors could get attract towards the company and company become able to get more dividend from the market. Cash dividends are bit essential for the company to become more competitive and enhance the market price of the stock of the company. Neither the higher dividend payout ratio nor the lower dividend payout ratio is in the favour of the company as both of these would raise the different issues in front of the company. Through this, it is suggested to the manager of the company to evaluate the dividend payout ratio according to the nature of the company and economical condition of the country. References: Baker, H.K. and Weigand, R., 2015. Corporate dividend policy revisited.Managerial Finance,41(2), pp.126-144. Barman, G.P., 2008. An evaluation of how dividend policies impact on the share value of selected companies. Bodie, Z., 2013.Investments. McGraw-Hill. Bradford, W., Chen, C. and Zhu, S., 2013. Cash dividend policy, corporate pyramids, and ownership structure: Evidence from China.International Review of Economics Finance,27, pp.445-464. Brealey, R., Myers, S.C. and Marcus, A.J., 2007.FundamentalsofCorporate Finance. Mc Graw Hill, New York. Breuer, W., Rieger, M.O. and Soypak, K.C., 2014. The behavioral foundations of corporate dividend policy a cross-country analysis.Journal of Banking Finance,42, pp.247-265. CORREIA, C. et al. 2013. FinancialManagement.7thEdition. Cape Town: Juta andCompany Ltd.2. Davies, T. and Crawford, I., 2011.Business accounting and finance. Pearson. DEEPTEE, P. and ROSHAN, B. 2009. Signaling Power of Dividends on firms futureProfits A Literature Review. Evergreen Energy- Interdisciplinary Journal, pp.1-9. FIRER, C. et al. 2012. FundamentalsofCorporateFinance.5thEdition.Berkshire.McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Hillier, D., Grinblatt, M. and Titman, S., 2011.Financial markets and corporate strategy. McGraw Hill. Masum, A.A., 2014. Dividend policy and its impact on stock priceA study on commercial banks listed in Dhaka stock exchange. Naser, K., Nuseibeh, R. and Rashed, W., 2013. Managers' perception of dividend policy: Evidence from companies listed on Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange.Issues in Business Management and Economics,1(1), pp.001-012. Shao, L., Kwok, C.C. and Guedhami, O., 2013. DIVIDEND POLICY: BALANCING SHAREHOLDERS'AND CREDITORS'INTERESTS.Journal of Financial Research,36(1), pp.43-66. STEEN, E. et al. 2012. stakeholder conflicts and dividend policy.JournalofBankingFinance, 36 pp. 2852-2864 Thanatawee, Y., 2013. Ownership structure and dividend policy: Evidence from Thailand. Travlos, N.G., Trigeorgis, L. and Vafeas, N., 2015. Shareholder wealth effects of dividend policy changes in an emerging stock market: The case of Cyprus. Tucker, J.W., 2011. Selection bias and econometric remedies in accounting and finance research. Zhang, D., 2012. Managerial dividend-paying incentives. Erasmus University Rotterdam.

Meth Paper Is Meth Water Soluble in the Body

Table of Contents Acute Physiological Effects of Meth’s Abuse Acute and Chronic Psychological Effects of Meth Conclusion Works Cited Meth is one of the most common existing psychoactive stimulants, whose abuse can lead to acute or chronic physiological and psychological problems. Medically, the drug is an important remedy to obesity, narcolepsy, and ADHD, although inmost cases most users abuse the drug, because of its pleasant effects, for example, increasing of sexual libido, alertness, and self-worth. Such effects result due to the ability of the drug to elevate the release of dopamine and serotonin quantities in its users’ brain.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Meth Paper: Is Meth Water Soluble in the Body? – Example Essay specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Meth is whitish in colour, with no strong smell, and easily soluble in most solvents, for example, water forming a very bitter solut ion. The most common methods of its use include snorting the drug through the nose, using its solution in injection form, and smoking (National Institute of Health: NIH, p.1). The working of Meth depends on its ability to increase the quantity of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for passing of impulses to and from the brain. Other functions of dopamine neurotransmitter in the body include control of motor function, motivation, and control of common processes involved in the releases of pleasure. Because of the pleasure released by dopamine, in most cases users of this drug find it very hard to quit using it hence, leading to many physiological and psychological problems (National Institute of Health: NIH, p.1). Acute Physiological Effects of Meth’s Abuse Most chronic physiological effects resulting from overuse of Meth result because of its effects on the normal functioning of the brain, because of excessive release of dopamine. Overuse of Meth impairs the normal moto r coordination of the body’s parts hence, causing flaws in the body’s functioning. In addition, research finding show that, the drug has adverse effects on the brain sections associated with the control of emotionality and memory. On the other hand, physiological problems associated with Meth’s abuse result because of the drugs effect on the brain’s chemical and molecular balances. It is important to note that, most acute physiological problems of meth’s abuse may last for a very long time, after individuals quit using the drug (Richards, Derlet and Albertson, p.1).Advertising Looking for essay on chemistry? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In acute and chronic abuse cases, consumers will feel energised, a condition caused by increased heart rate. The primary acute physiological effects resulting from use of the drug include increased heart rate and blood pressure, muscle weaknesses, chest pai ns, and abnormal sweating rates. In addition, the drug can cause respiratory depression, increased size of the eye pupils, queasiness, and impaired motor coordination. In addition, in uncontrolled abuse cases, most individuals may develop seizures, cardiovascular problems, coma, and in case most overdosed individual do not seek quick medical attention, likelihoods of death are high. On the other hand, most long terms users experiences memory lapse or loss problems, because the drug impairs the normal functioning of the brain; as concerns control of the body’s biological activities. Other medical researches have associated Methamphetamine with the rapid spread of the deadly infection HIV and AIDS and some strains of Hepatitis, because most Meth’s abusers prefer injections; a fact associated with their quick and fast spreading of Meth’s effects to other body parts (Richards, Derlet and Albertson, p.1) In addition, because of meth’s effect on the motor funct ioning of the body, in most cases most Meth users feel fatigued, experience unending body aches, muscle complications, and abnormal appetite level. Other acute physiological problems associated with Meth’s abuse include dizziness, constipation, pallor, cerebral edema, choreoathetiod movement disorder, renal problems, and atrial and ventricular arrhythmia. The drug also has physical-physiological manifestation symptoms on chronic users. That is, the drug makes individuals’ skins to look aged, a fact that medical researches attribute to malnutrition, poor health practises, and dental problems (resulting from the decaying effect of Meth) (Winslow, Voorhees, and Pehl, pp. 1169-1174) Acute and Chronic Psychological Effects of Meth Meth is one of the most addictive drugs hence, unless users take early precautions necessary for taming its abuse, likelihoods of serious psychological problems are high, which in many ways affect an individual’s normal life. In most prolon ged use cases, most individuals will experience some mental strain, caused by insomnia and increased alertness. Such extreme alertness levels can make most users to loose control of their lives hence, largely affecting their social life.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Meth Paper: Is Meth Water Soluble in the Body? – Example Essay specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is because, most long-term users are very irritable, aggressive, and always like to panic; hence, in most cases such users prefer to live in isolation. In addition, research findings on the psychological effects of the drug on long-term users also show that, there is a close correlation between psychosis and Meth, a fact attributed to the ability of the drug to cause paranoia. On the other hand, to chronic users, the drug can cause auditory and visual hallucinations, which can lead to heightened emotionality and obsessive behaviours in indiv iduals. Because of the addictive nature of the drug, any attempt to stop its usage can cause serious withdrawal problems, which can totally alter individuals’ behaviours, as most of them cannot manage withdrawal symptoms (Winslow, Voorhees, and Pehl, pp. 1169-1174). Conclusion In conclusion, meth is one of the most addictive drugs, with serious physiological and psychological complications hence, the need for individuals to watch their consumption habits. Because of the nature of emotional and physical trauma associated with the drug, it is advisable for users to seek early medical and psychological intervention or treatment. Common treatment remedies include cognitive-behavioural and contingence treatment interventions, there being no special medications to treat the addiction. Works Cited National Institute of Health. Methamphetamine. NIDA. 2010. Web. Richards, John, Derlet, Robert, and Albertson, Timothy. Toxicity, methamphetamine. Medscape: E-medicine, 2009. Web. Winslow, Bradford, Voorhees, Kenton, and Pehl, Katherine. Methamphetamine abuse. Am Farm Physician, 15; 76(8) (2007): 1196-1174. Web. This essay on Meth Paper: Is Meth Water Soluble in the Body? was written and submitted by user Silas Richards to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.